The global demand for natural rubber, which is mainly used for tyre manufacture, is driving the conversion of millions of hectares of tropical forests into rubber plantations.
This has serious implications for the environment, biodiversity, and human rights, according to two recent studies by an international team of researchers.
Worsening Rubber-related Deforestation
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One of the studies, published in the journal Nature, used the latest satellite technology and cloud computing to map the extent of rubber plantations across south-east Asia, where most of the world's natural rubber is produced.
The researchers found that over four million hectares of tree cover-an area equivalent to the size of Switzerland-may have been cleared to make space for rubber plantations since the 1990s. This is up to three times larger than previous estimates, which have been widely used to inform policy.
The study also revealed that rubber plantations have encroached into areas of global importance for the protection of biodiversity, with over one million hectares planted in these areas.
The researchers said that the threat this poses to biodiversity should not be underestimated, as rubber plantations often involve clearing natural forests, which are home to many endangered species and provide essential ecosystem services.
Dr Yunxia Wang, the first author of the study, said: "Rubber was already known to lead to forest loss, but quantifying the damage has been challenging.
Because it is difficult to distinguish from natural forest on satellite imagery, it has received reduced attention when looking at the losses caused by commercial plantations.
However, thanks to expanding earth observation and computing technology, there are increasing opportunities to map 'difficult' commodities. The results have been sobering."
Rubber Expansion Poses Social and Economic Challenges
The other study, published in the journal Conservation Letters, conducted a systematic review of case studies and analysis of recent trends in rubber area and yield.
The researchers found that rubber cultivation is regularly linked to deforestation, land grabbing, and human rights infringement in some countries.
They also warned that as demand grows and yields stagnate, continued deforestation for rubber is to be expected, especially in new producer countries such as Cote d'Ivoire.
Dr Eleanor Warren-Thomas, the lead author of the study, said: "Our analysis shows substantial expansion of rubber plantations has occurred in many producer countries since 2010, with particularly rapid increases in new locations such as Cote d'Ivoire.
Some 2.7 million to 5.3 million hectares of additional harvested area could be needed to meet industry estimates of demand by 2030.
It is critical that existing rubber producers are supported to improve their yields and maintain production, to avoid ongoing expansion of plantation area."
The researchers also highlighted the need for equitable and sustainable solutions that balance the economic benefits of rubber production with the environmental and social costs.
They suggested that certification schemes, such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), could help to promote best practices and reduce the negative impacts of rubber cultivation.
They also called for more research and innovation to develop alternative sources of natural rubber, such as from dandelions or guayule, or synthetic substitutes that are less dependent on fossil fuels.
